The next two sections explore the effects of lack of consistency in observational studies of obesity on two additional conditions for causal inference: exchangeability and positivity. We conclude ...

This poses a significant problem for the industry. Missing race and ethnicity data in medical assessments can lead to biased estimates of treatment effects due to a lack of exchangeability. Ensuring ...

a standard that mandates companies to estimate the spot exchange rate when the “exchangeability” between two currencies is missing. The move will help more accurately capture the impact of ...